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Islam

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<= !-- start content -->
3D""=20
For people named "Islam", see Islam = (name).
=20
3D""
Muslims performing salah = (prayer)

Beliefs

=

Allah =C2=B7 Oneness of God
Muhammad =C2=B7=20 Prophets = of=20 Islam

Practices=

Profession of = Faith =C2=B7 Prayer
Fasting =C2=B7 Charity =C2=B7 Pilgrimage

History = & Leaders

Timeline= of=20 Muslim history
Ahl al-Bayt = =C2=B7 Sahaba
Rashidun=20 Caliphs =C2=B7 Shi'a=20 Imams

Texts = &=20 Laws

Qur'an =C2=B7 = Sunnah =C2=B7 Hadith
Fiqh =C2=B7 Sharia
Kalam =C2=B7 Tasawwuf = (Sufism)

Major=20 branches

Sunni =C2=B7 = Shi'a

Culture = & Society

Academics = =C2=B7 Animals = =C2=B7 Art
Calendar = =C2=B7 Children = =C2=B7 DemographicsFestivals = =C2=B7 Mosques =C2=B7 PhilosophyPolitics= =20 =C2=B7 Science = =C2=B7 Women

<= /TR>

Islam = &=20 other religions

Christianity= =20 =C2=B7 Jainism
Judaism = =C2=B7 Sikhism<= /TR>

See=20 also

Criticism = of=20 Islam =C2=B7 Islamophobia
Glo= ssary=20 of Islamic terms

Islam = Portal=20  v =E2=80=A2 d =E2=80=A2 e 

Part of a series=20 on
Islam

3D""=20

Islam (Arabic: =D8= =A7=D9=84=D8=A5=D8=B3=D9=84=D8=A7=D9=85;=20 al-'isl=C4=81m (help=C2=B7= info))=20 is a monotheistic Abrahamic = religion=20 originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th = century Arab = religious and=20 political figure. The word Islam means "submission", or the total = surrender of oneself to God (Arabic: =D8=A7=D9=84=D9=84=D9=87, All=C4=81h).[1] An = adherent of Islam is known as a Muslim, meaning "one = who submits=20 (to God)".[2]= [3]= =20 There are between 1 billion and 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the second-large= st=20 religion in the world, after Christianity.[4]

=

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to=20 Muhammad, God's final = prophet, and=20 regard the Qur'an and the Sunnah (words and deeds = of=20 Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.[5] = They do not=20 regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of = the=20 original monotheistic faith of Abraham, Moses, = Jesus, = and other=20 prophets. = Islamic=20 tradition holds that Jews and Christians=20 distorted = the=20 revelations God gave to these prophets by either altering the text,=20 introducing a false interpretation, or both.[6]=

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally = required to=20 observe the Five Pillars = of=20 Islam, which are five duties that unite Muslims into a = community.[7] In = addition=20 to the Five Pillars, Islamic law = (sharia) has=20 developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of = life and=20 society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters = like dietary = laws and banking to warfare.[8]

=

Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni=20 and Shi'a. The schism = developed=20 in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and = political=20 leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are = Sunni and=20 15 percent are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the = Middle=20 East, as well as in parts of Africa and Asia. Large communities = are also=20 found in China, the Balkan = Peninsula in Eastern Europe = and Russia. There = are also=20 large Muslim immigrant communities in other parts of the world such as = Western Europe. = About 20%=20 of Muslims live in Arab countries.[9]

=

Contents

  • 1 Etymology and=20 meaning=20
  • 2 Articles of=20 faith=20
    • 2.1 God=20
    • 2.2 Qur'an=20
    • 2.3 Angels=20
    • 2.4 Muhammad=20
    • 2.5 Resurrection and=20 judgment=20
    • 2.6 Predestination
  • 3 Duties and=20 practices=20
    • 3.1 Five = Pillars=20
    • 3.2 Law=20
      • 3.2.1 Religion and=20 state
    • 3.3 Etiquette = and=20 diet=20
    • 3.4 Jihad=20
  • 4 History=20
    • 4.1 Rise of the = caliphate=20 (632=E2=80=93750)=20
    • 4.2 Golden Age=20 (750=E2=80=931258)=20
    • 4.3 Ottomans = and Islamic=20 empires in India (1258=E2=80=931918)=20
    • 4.4 Modern = times=20 (1918=E2=80=93present)
  • 5 Community=20
    • 5.1 Demographics=20
    • 5.2 Mosques=20
    • 5.3 Family = life=20
    • 5.4 Calendar=20
  • 6 Other = religions=20
  • 7 Denominations=20
    • 7.1 Sunni=20
    • 7.2 Shi'a=20
    • 7.3 Sufism=20
    • 7.4 Others=20
  • 8 See = also=20
  • 9 Notes=20
  • 10 References=20
  • 11 Further = reading=20
  • 12 External = links=20

Etymology and meaning

Main article: S-L-M
=

The word Isl=C4=81m, from the triliteral root = s-l-m,=20 is derived from the Arabic = verb=20 Aslama, which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus, Islam = means=20 acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this = by=20 worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The = word is given=20 a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some = verses (ayat), the quality of = Islam as=20 an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He = expands=20 his breast to Islam."[10] = Other=20 verses connect isl=C4=81m and d=C4=ABn= (usually=20 translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion = (d=C4=ABn)=20 for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam = for your=20 religion."[11] = Still=20 others describe Islam as an action of returning to God=E2=80=94more than = just a verbal=20 affirmation of faith.[12]

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

According to the Qur'an all Muslims have to believe in God, his = revelations,=20 his angels, his messengers, = and in the=20 "Day of Judgment".[13] = Also,=20 there are other beliefs that differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of = predestination is=20 called divine = decree,[14] = while the=20 Shi'a version is = called divine = justice.=20 Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of Imamah,=20 or the political and spiritual leadership of the Imams.[15]

Muslims believe that God revealed his final = message to=20 humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the angel Gabriel. For = them,=20 Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he = received=20 over more than two decades.[16] = In Islam,=20 prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe = that=20 prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform = miracles to=20 prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to=20 perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine revelation=E2=80=94e= ither directly=20 from God or through angels. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous = figures=20 considered prophets in = Islam,=20 including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among = others.[17] = Islamic=20 theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the = message of=20 Islam=E2=80=94submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described = in the Qur'an as=20 "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",[18] = and the=20 Qur'an states that the proper name = Muslim=20 was given by Abraham.[19]

As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in Arabia = in the early=20 7th century.[20] = Islamic=20 texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions = to the=20 teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the = Book"=20 (ahl al-kit=C4=81b), and distinguishes them from polytheists. = Muslims believe=20 that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had=20 become distorted=E2=80=94either= in=20 interpretation, in text, or both.[6]=

God

Main article: God in=20 Islam
See also: Allah =

Islam's fundamental theological concept is tawh=C4=ABd=E2=80= =94the=20 belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is = All=C4=81h; most=20 scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and =CA=BEil=C4=81h= (deity,=20 masculine form), meaning "the God" (al-il=C4=81h), but others trace its = origin to the=20 Aramaic Al=C4=81h=C4=81.[21] = The first=20 of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawh=C4=ABd is expressed in the = shahadah=20 (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that = Muhammad=20 is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all=20 comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship = and=20 adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, = they reject=20 the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, comparing it = to=20 polytheism. In Islamic theology, Jesus was just a man and = not the=20 son of God;[22] = God is=20 described in a chapter (sura) of the Qur'an = as "=E2=80=A6God,=20 the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is = He=20 begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[23]

Qur'an

Main articles: Islamic holy = books=20 and Qur'an
See also: Origin=20 and development of the Qur'an
=20
3D""
The first sura in a = Qur'anic=20 manuscript by Hattat Aziz=20 Efendi

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the = central=20 religious text = of=20 Islam.[24] = Muslims=20 believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God = through=20 the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on July = 6, 632. The = Qur'an was=20 written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he = was alive,=20 although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in = the=20 time of Abu=20 Bakr, the first caliph, and was = standardized in=20 the time of Uthman, the third = caliph. The=20 Qur'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars = to record=20 the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western = academia=20 has not yielded any differences of great significance and that = historically=20 controversy over the content of the Qur'an has never become a main = point. [25]

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which = combined,=20 contain 6,236 =C4=81y=C4=81t, or = verses. The=20 chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily = concerned with=20 ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss = social and=20 moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[26] = The Qur'an=20 is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is = considered=20 the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[27] = Muslim=20 jurists consult the hadith, or the = written record=20 of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its=20 interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known = as=20 tafsir.[28]

The word Qur'an means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the = abstract=20 about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic = rather=20 than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an = is=20 perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are = necessarily=20 deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of = translators, and=20 the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. = Translations are=20 therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or = "interpretations of=20 its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[29]

Angels

Main article: Angels in=20 Islam

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word = for Angels=20 (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew=20 (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, = angels do=20 not possess free will, and = worship God in=20 perfect obedience.[30] = Angels'=20 duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, = recording=20 every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. = They=20 are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes = angels as=20 "messengers with wings=E2=80=94two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] = adds to Creation=20 as He pleases=E2=80=A6"[31]

Muhammad

Main article: Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 =E2=80=93 July 6, 632) was an Arab = religious,=20 political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a = historical=20 phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but = as the=20 restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, = Abraham and=20 others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the = greatest in=20 a series of prophets=E2=80= =94as the man=20 closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.[32] = For the=20 last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported = receiving=20 revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the = Qur'an, was=20 memorized and recorded by his companions.[33]

=20
The Masjid = al-Nabawi=20 ("Mosque of the Prophet") in Medina is the site of = Muhammad's=20 tomb.

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to = abandon=20 polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers = were=20 persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of = preaching,=20 Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra=20 ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known = as=20 Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) = and the=20 Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), = Muhammad=20 established his political and religious authority. = Within=20 years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle=20 of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle=20 of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan = Jewish=20 clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, = and the=20 Jewish enclave of Khaybar was = subdued.=20 At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought=20 surrounding desert tribes under his control.[34] = By 629=20 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of = Mecca, and=20 by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the Arabian = peninsula.[35= ]

In Islam, the "normative" example = of=20 Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally = "trodden=20 path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), = which recount=20 his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical = Muslim=20 jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. = 820)=20 emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and = Muslims are=20 encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The = Sunnah is=20 seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[36]

Resurrection and judgment

Main article: Qiyama

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm = al-Qiy=C4=81mah (also known=20 as yawm ad-d=C4=ABn, "Day of Judgment" and as-s=C4=81`a, = "the Last Hour") is=20 also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of = Qiy=C4=81mah is=20 preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations = preceding and=20 during the Qiy=C4=81mah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the = commentaries of Islamic=20 scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily=20 resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic = Arabian=20 understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by = the=20 gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.[37]

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such = as=20 disbelief, usury and=20 dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (jannah) as a place = of joy and=20 bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical = pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater = joy=E2=80=94acceptance by God=20 (ridw=C4=81n).[38] = Mystical=20 traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an = ecstatic=20 awareness of God.[39]

Predestination

Main articles: Predestinat= ion in=20 Islam and Adalah

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, = or divine=20 preordainment (al-qad=C4=81 wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge = and control=20 over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: = 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is = our=20 protector'=E2=80=A6"[40] = For=20 Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been = preordained=20 and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, = divine=20 preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against = evil,=20 because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits = men may=20 not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are = pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to = choose=20 between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. = According to=20 Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in = al-Lawh=20 al-Mahf=C5=ABz, the "Preserved Tablet".[41]

The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice"=20 (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu'tazila,=20 stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In=20 contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the = context=20 of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.[42]

Duties and practices

Five Pillars

Main article: Five = Pillars of=20 Islam
=20
Islam's basic creed (shahadah) written = on a=20 plaque in the Great = Mosque of=20 Xi'an, China
3D"Rituals=20
3D""=20
Rituals of the Hajj (pilgrimage) include = walking=20 seven times around the Kaaba in = Mecca.

The Five = Pillars=20 of Islam (Arabic: =D8=A7=D8=B1=D9=83=D8=A7=D9=86 = =D8=A7=D9=84=D8=AF=D9=8A=D9=86) are five practices essential to Sunni = Islam.=20 Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially = overlap=20 with the Five Pillars.[43] = They=20 are:

  • The shahadah, = which is=20 the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "'a=C5=A1hadu 'al-l=C4=81 il=C4=81ha = ill=C4=81-ll=C4=81hu wa 'a=C5=A1hadu 'anna mu=C4=A7ammadan=20 ras=C5=ABlu-ll=C4=81h", or "I testify that there is none = worthy of worship=20 except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This=20 testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam = (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the shahadah to = be a=20 separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the = shahadah in=20 prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to = recite the=20 creed.[44] =
  • Salah, or = ritual prayer,=20 which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are = permitted to=20 run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with = the=20 night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the Kaaba in Mecca. Salah = is=20 intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal = communication=20 with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but = flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In = many=20 Muslim countries, reminders called Adhan (call to prayer) = are=20 broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The = prayers=20 are recited in the Arabic = language, and=20 consist of verses from the Qur'an.[45]=20
  • Zakat, or alms-giving. This is = the practice=20 of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all = Muslims who=20 can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and = also to=20 assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious = obligation (as=20 opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy = because their=20 wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the = hadith also=20 suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving = (sadaqah).=20 Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of = a khums tax, which=20 they consider to be a separate ritual practice.[46] =
  • Sawm, or fasting during = the month=20 of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) = from dawn=20 to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast = is to=20 encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should = express=20 their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, = and=20 think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups = for whom=20 it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is = allowed=20 depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up=20 quickly.[47] =
  • The Hajj, which is = the=20 pilgrimage during the Islamic = month of=20 Dhu = al-Hijjah in the=20 city of Mecca.=20 Every able-bodied = Muslim who can=20 afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or = her=20 lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must = dress=20 in Ihram = clothing,=20 which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj = include=20 walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black=20 Stone, running seven times between Mount = Safa and=20 Mount = Marwah,=20 and symbolically stoning the = Devil=20 in Mina. = The=20 pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community, = although=20 Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion = to God=20 instead of a means to gain social standing.[48] =

In addition to the khums tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three = additional=20 practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is jihad, which is also = important to=20 the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is Amr-Bil-Ma'r=C5= =ABf,=20 the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a = virtuous life=20 and to encourage others to do the same. The third is Nahi-Anil-Munkar,=20 the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain = from vice=20 and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.[49]

Law

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering = place") is=20 Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia = is the=20 expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that = are=20 incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[50]

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like=20 governance and foreign relations, = to issues=20 of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the = punishments for=20 five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful = intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The = Qur'an and=20 Sunnah also contain laws of i= nheritance,=20 marri= age,=20 and restitution for=20 injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these = prescriptions and prohibitions may be = broad, so=20 their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known = as=20 ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules = and=20 their interpretations.[51]

Fiqh, or=20 "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of = the=20 religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as = usul=20 al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). = According to=20 Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given = precedence=20 in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), = the=20 consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical = reasoning=20 (qiyas). For=20 early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic = application of=20 the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i = provided a=20 theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of = jurisprudence=20 (including the four fundamental roots) in his book = ar-Ris=C4=81lah.[52]

Religion and state

Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and = "matters of=20 state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, = Islamic=20 rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of = so-called=20 "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world = came=20 into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in=20 different ways. Turkey has been = governed as a=20 secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa = Kemal=20 Atat=C3=BCrk. In contrast, the 1979 = Iranian=20 Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic = republic led by=20 the Ayatollah Ruholla = Khomeini.[53]

Etiquette and diet

Main articles: Adab = (behavior)=20 and Islamic = dietary=20 laws

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic = etiquette.=20 This includes greeting others with "as-salamu=20 `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah=20 ("in the name of God") = before=20 meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Is= lamic=20 hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal = cleanliness and=20 health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic burial = rituals=20 include saying the Salat = al-Janazah=20 ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying = it in a=20 grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited = foods=20 include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. = All meat=20 must come from a herbivorous animal = slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the=20 exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food = permissible=20 for Muslims is known as halal food.[54]

Jihad

Main articles: Jihad and Isla= mic=20 military jurisprudence

Jihad means "to strive or struggle," (..in the way of God) and is = considered=20 the "sixth pillar = of=20 Islam" by a minority of Muslim authorities.[55] Jihad,=20 in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost = power,=20 efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of = disapprobation."=20 Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of = one's=20 own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.[56] = Jihad when=20 used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect.[57][58] = Jihad also=20 refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[59] = Some=20 Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish = between the=20 "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the = "lesser=20 jihad", defined as warfare.[60]

Within Islamic=20 jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion = against=20 non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of = the Islamic=20 state, the ultimate purpose of which is to universalize Islam. = Jihad, the=20 only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against = apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or = states=20 which refuse to submit to the authority of Islam.[61][62] Most=20 Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the = external=20 Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the = Islamic=20 norms of justice. [63]

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective = duty=20 (fard = kifaya):=20 its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those = vested=20 with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become = an=20 individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the = case of=20 a general=20 mobilization.[62] For=20 most Shias,=20 offensive = jihad can only=20 be declared by a divinely=20 appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended = since Muhammad = al-Mahdi's=20 occultation in 868 AD. [64]

History

Main articles: Muslim = history and Spread of=20 Islam

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, = and=20 military effects inside and outside the Islamic=20 world. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an, an=20 Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean = in the=20 west to Central Asia in = the east.=20 This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought = each=20 other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into = regions like=20 Africa, the Indian = subcontinent,=20 and Southeast Asia. = The=20 Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during = the Middle=20 Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military = growth of=20 the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as = the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the = sway of=20 European imperial powers. In the 20th century new religious and = political=20 movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both = rebirth and=20 conflict.[65]

Rise of the caliphate = (632=E2=80=93750)

Further information: Succession = to=20 Muhammad, Muslim=20 conquests, and Arab = caliphate=20

Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to = Medina, = from where=20 he united the tribes of = Arabia into a=20 singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632,=20 disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the = Muslim=20 community. Umar ibn = al-Khattab,=20 a prominent companion of Muhammad, = nominated=20 Abu = Bakr,=20 who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their = support=20 and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was = disputed=20 by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi = Talib, his=20 cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's = immediate=20 task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman = Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by = Arab tribes=20 in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or = "Wars of=20 Apostasy".[66]

=20
3D""
The territory of the Caliphate in=20 750

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, = followed=20 by Uthman ibn = al-Affan=20 and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulaf=C4=81' = ar-r=C4=81shid=C5=ABn=20 ("Rightly = Guided=20 Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded = deeply into=20 Persian and Byzantine = territories.[67]

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the = election of=20 Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, = Uthman was=20 also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off=20 opposition in the first civil war = (the "First=20 Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. = Following=20 this, Mu'awiyah, who was = governor=20 of Levant, seized=20 power and began the Umayyad = dynasty.[68]

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give = rise to=20 schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of = the=20 three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority = disagreed, and=20 believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as = the Shi'a.[69] = After=20 Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a = civil=20 war known as the "Second Fitna". = Afterward,=20 the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer = the Maghrib and Al-Andalus=20 (the Iberian = Peninsula,=20 former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese = Gaul} in=20 the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of = Central=20 Asia.[70]. = While the=20 Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to = question the=20 piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, = humility and=20 avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim = ascetic=20 exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri = would=20 inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[71]

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs = only;[72] = the=20 economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a = majority of=20 non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay = taxes to the=20 minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was = supposed=20 to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these = new=20 Muslims (mawali) did not = achieve=20 social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of = Muhammad's uncle=20 Abbas = ibn Abd=20 al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some = Shi'a=20 against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their = propagandist and=20 general Abu Muslim, = inaugurating the=20 Abbasid = dynasty=20 in 750.[73] = Under the=20 Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden = Age",=20 with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[74]

Golden Age (750=E2=80=931258)

Main article: Islamic = Golden=20 Age
3D"Artistic=20
3D""=20
Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, = where=20 Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as = various=20 regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, = Persia, and=20 Central Asia emirates formed as = provinces=20 broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously=20 homogenized Muslim world = where the Shia=20 Fatimids=20 contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had = eliminated=20 the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect = the=20 caliph's titular authority.[75] = During=20 this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and = peaceful=20 proselytism even as=20 both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West=20 Africa, Central Asia, Volga=20 Bulgaria and the Malay = archipelago.[2]=

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious = developments. The=20 major = hadith=20 collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were = established.=20 Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century = jurist=20 al-Shafi'i; he = codified a=20 method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a = locus of=20 dispute among Islamic scholars.[76]=20 Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) = and Al-Farabi=20 sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while = others like=20 the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid=20 al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[77] = Finally,=20 Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism = became a=20 full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its = ascetic=20 roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of=20 Imams.[78]

The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical = Christian=20 authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers = of new=20 Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which = depicted=20 Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of = Muslims as=20 libidinous and subhuman.[79] = In the medieval=20 period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri = adopted a=20 critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides = contrasted Islamic=20 views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.[80]

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be = reversed. The Reconquista was = launched=20 against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and = Muslim = Italian=20 possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th = century=20 onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a = series of=20 wars known as the Crusades, bringing the = Muslim=20 world into conflict with Christendom. = Initially=20 successful in their goal of taking the Holy = land, and=20 establishing the Crusader = states,=20 Crusader gains in the Holy Land were later reversed by subsequent Muslim = generals such as Saladin; who = recaptured Jerusalem=20 during the Second = Crusade.[81] = In the=20 east the Mongol Empire = put an end=20 to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle= of=20 Baghdad in 1258, as they overran in Muslim lands in a series of = invasions.=20 Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in = an=20 uprising in 1250[82] = and in=20 alliance with the Golden Horde were = able halt=20 the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain = Jalut.=20 Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia and = Islam was=20 temporarily replaced by Buddhism as the = official=20 religion of the land. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to = Islam and=20 this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of = Mongol-Islamic=20 synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and = the Indian=20 subcontinent.

Ottomans and Islamic empires in India=20 (1258=E2=80=931918)

The Seljuk = Turks=20 conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the de = facto rulers=20 of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating = the Byzantines at the Battle of = Manzikert,=20 thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart = rapidly in=20 the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various = semi-autonomous Turkic=20 dynasties. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire = (named=20 after Osman=20 I) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates" and established = itself=20 after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, = and western=20 Anatolia. In=20 1453 under Mehmed II the = Ottomans laid=20 siege to Constantinople, = the=20 capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress succumbed shortly=20 thereafter, having been battered by superior Ottoman cannonry.[83]

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, = largely as=20 a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to = legitimize=20 and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi = order=E2=80=94a=20 community of spiritual teachers and students.[84] = Also of=20 importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection = of=20 mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet = Rumi= . The=20 Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious = thought;=20 to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.[85]

=20
The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum=20 located in Agra, India, = that was built=20 under Mughal[86]

In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid = dynasty assumed=20 control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion = there, and=20 despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two = centuries.=20 Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched = a=20 European campaign which reached as far as the gates of = Vienna in=20 1529.[87] = After the=20 invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Delhi became the most = important=20 cultural centre of the Muslim east. [88] Many=20 Islamic=20 dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the = 12th=20 century. The prominent ones include the Delhi = Sultanate=20 (1206=E2=80=931526) and the Mughal empire = (1526=E2=80=931857).=20 These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia. but by = the=20 mid-18th century the British empire = had ended=20 the Mughal dynasty.[89] = In the=20 18th century the Wahhabi movement took = hold in=20 Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd=20 al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns = practices=20 like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[90]

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, = the=20 Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and = military=20 advantages. In the 19th century, the rise=20 of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence = in=20 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans = suffered=20 defeat in the Russo-Turkish=20 War of 1877=E2=80=931878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end = of World War=20 I.[91]

In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were = initiated.

Modern times = (1918=E2=80=93present)

After World War I = losses, the=20 remnants of the empire were parceled out as European protectorates or = spheres of=20 influence. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent = nations,=20 and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel = have assumed=20 prominence.[92]

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" = movements.=20 Groups such as the Muslim = Brotherhood in=20 Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami= in=20 Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular = political=20 ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see = Western=20 cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive = solution to=20 every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran = and=20 Afghanistan (under the Taliban), = revolutionary=20 movements replaced secular regimes = with Islamist=20 states, while transnational groups like Osama bin = Laden's al-Qaeda engage=20 in terrorism to = further=20 their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is = a=20 movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern = norms of=20 secular governance and human rights. Its = supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred = texts, and=20 stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious=20 matters".[93]

In modern times Islam has come under criticism = from=20 idealogues such as Ibn Warraq[94] = who=20 criticize Islamic law and question the morality of the Qur'an; for = example, they=20 say that its contents justify mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic = remarks by=20 Muslim theologians;[95] = such=20 claims are disputed by Muslim scholars.[96]=20 Montgomery = Watt, Norman=20 Daniel, and Edward Said = dismiss many of=20 the criticisms as the product of old myths and medieval European = polemics.[97] = The rise=20 of Islamophobia, = according to=20 Carl=20 Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims = in the=20 West.[98]

Community

Main article: Muslim=20 world
=20
Muslim percentage of population by country = (exclusive=20 non-Muslim foreigners in the Middle East)

Demographics

See also: Islam by=20 country and Demographics = of=20 Islam

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from=20 1 billion to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are Sunni and = 15% are Shi'a, with a small = minority=20 belonging to other sects. Some 30=E2=80=9340 countries are = Muslim-majority, and Arabs=20 account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. South Asia and Southeast Asia = contain=20 the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh=20 having more than 100 million adherents each.[99]=20 According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million = Muslims=20 in China.[100] = In the Middle=20 East, the non-Arab countries of Turkey and Iran are the largest=20 Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most = populous=20 Muslim communities.[99]=20 Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in = many European = countries.[101]=

Mosques

Main article: Mosque
=20
Eid prayers on the = holiday of=20 Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi = Mosque, Pakistan. The=20 days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic = calendar.

A mosque is a place of = worship for=20 Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The = word=20 mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to = Islamic=20 worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller,=20 privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid=20 j=C4=81mi`). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve = as a place of=20 prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a = place to=20 meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early = designs of=20 the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as = minarets.[102]=

Family life

See also: Women and=20 Islam

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam = defines the=20 obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as=20 financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for = their=20 well-being. The division of inheritance is = specified in=20 the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate = family,=20 while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of=20 bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of = a man=20 with the same rights of succession.[103]= =20 Marriage in = Islam is a=20 civil contract=20 which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties = in the=20 presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a dowry (mahr) to the bride, = as=20 stipulated in the contract.[104]=

A man may marry up to four wives if he believes he can treat them = equally,=20 while a woman may marry one man only. In most Muslim countries, the = process of=20 divorce in Islam is known as talaq, = which the=20 husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[105]= Scholars=20 disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic = practices such=20 as veiling and=20 seclusion (purdah). Starting in = the 20th=20 century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other = practices such=20 as polygamy, = with varying=20 success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile = tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward = modesty.=20 Certain Islamist groups like = the Taliban have=20 sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[106]=

Calendar

Main article: Islamic=20 calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 = CE, which=20 was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of = this=20 year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was=20 reportedly made by Caliph=20 Umar. It is a lunar calendar, = with=20 nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in = a=20 thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates = simply by=20 adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each = Hijri=20 century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[107]= The year=20 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.

Islamic holy=20 days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that = they occur=20 in different = seasons in=20 different years in the Gregorian = calendar.=20 The most important Islamic festivals are Eid=20 al-Fitr (Arabic: =D8=B9=D9=8A=D8=AF = =D8=A7=D9=84=D9=81=D8=B7=D8=B1) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking = the end of=20 the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid=20 al-Adha (Arabic: =D8=B9=D9=8A=D8=AF = =D8=A7=D9=84=D8=A3=D8=B6=D8=AD=D9=89) on the 10th of Dhu=20 al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[108]=

Other religions

Main article: Islam = and other=20 religions
=20
A view of the Dome of the = Rock on the=20 Temple=20 Mount in Jerusalem, a holy = site in both=20 Islam and Judaism that has been = a source=20 of controversy
=20
3D""
The Al-Aqsa Mosque=20 congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven = on this=20 site.

According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of = mankind,=20 professed by Adam.[109]= At some=20 point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to = bring his=20 revelations to the people.[110]= In this=20 view, Abraham,=20 Moses, = Hebrew = prophets, and Jesus were all Prophets in = Islam, but=20 their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted by Jews and Christians. = Similarly,=20 children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to = another=20 faith by their parents.[111]= The idea=20 of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted = and=20 nothing is exalted above it."[112]= Pursuant=20 to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation = of=20 Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible = against a=20 Muslim.[113]=

Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on = their=20 relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under = Islamic rule=20 are known as dhimmis = ("protected=20 peoples"). According to this pact, the personal safety and security of = property=20 of the dhimmis were guaranteed in return for paying tribute (jizya) to the = Islamic state=20 and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a = measure of=20 communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to = legal,=20 social and religious restrictions meant to highlight their = inferiority.[114]= The=20 status was extended to Zoroastrians and sometimes to polytheists (such = as Hindus), = but not to atheists or agnostics.[115]= Those=20 who live in non-Muslim lands (dar al-harb) = are known=20 as harbis,=20 and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as = ahl=20 al-ahd. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing = temporarily=20 in Muslim lands are known as ahl al-am=C4=81n. Their legal = position is similar=20 to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the = jizya. The=20 people of armistice (ahl al-hudna) are those who live outside of = Muslim=20 territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.[116]= [117]= Apostasy is=20 prohibited, and is punishable by death.[118]= [119]=

Denominations

Main article: Divisions of=20 Islam

Islam consists of a number of religious=20 denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have=20 significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is = between=20 the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism = generally=20 considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct = school.=20 According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are = Sunni=20 and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members = of other=20 Islamic = sects.[120]=

Sunni

Main article: Sunni
=
=20
3D""
Divisions of Islam

Sunni Muslims are the = largest=20 group in Islam. In Arabic, = as-Sunnah=20 literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of = Muhammad's=20 life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of = Sunni=20 doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the = rightful=20 successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders = to=20 succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four = major legal=20 traditions, or madhhabs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali. All four=20 accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that = he or=20 she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have = departed from=20 the majority by introducing innovations (bidah). There are = also several=20 orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For = example,=20 the recent Salafi movement sees = itself as=20 restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original = sources of=20 Islam.[121]=

Shi'a

Main article: Shi'a
See also: Succession = to=20 Muhammad

The Shi'a, who constitute = the=20 second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious = leadership = of infallible=20 Imams from=20 the progeny of Ali ibn Abi = Talib.=20 They believe that he, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his = rightful=20 successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting = the=20 legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To them, an Imam rules by = right of=20 divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among = Muslims,=20 having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.[122]= [123]= Although=20 the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches = disagree=20 over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of = hadith. The=20 Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari=20 jurisprudence.[124]= Shi'a=20 Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (i=E1=B9=AFn=C4=81=CA=BFa=C5=A1ariyya), = while the others are the Ismaili, the Seveners, and the=20 Zaidiyyah.[125]=

Sufism

Main article: Sufism

Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a = mystical-ascetic form=20 of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis = strive to=20 obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and = emotional=20 faculties" that one must be trained to use.[126]= Sufism=20 and Islamic law are = usually=20 considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by = some=20 Muslims for being an unjustified religious innovation. = Most Sufi=20 orders, or tariqas, can be = classified as=20 either Sunni or Shi'a.[127]=

Others

The Kharijites are a = sect that=20 dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the=20 Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most = Kharijite=20 groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important = topic in=20 Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be = chosen solely=20 on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts = unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.[128]=

The Alevi, Yazidi, = Druze, Ahmadiyy= a, B=C3=A1b=C3=AD,= Bah=C3=A1'= =C3=AD, Berghouata and Ha-Mim = movements=20 either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. = Some=20 consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though=20 controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late = fifteenth=20 century Punjab, = incorporates=20 aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.[129]=

See also

3D""=20
 Islam=20 Portal
Further information: List of Islamic = and=20 Muslim-related topics

Notes

  1. ^ USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts=20
  2. ^ <= I>a=20 <= I>b=20 L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  3. ^<= /A>=20 Lane's lexicon. Retrieved on 2007-07-03.=20
  4. ^ Major Religions of the World=E2=80=94Ranked by Number = of Adherents=20 (HTML). Retrieved on 2007-07-03.=20
  5. ^ See:=20
  6. ^ <= I>a=20 <= I>b=20 See:=20
    • Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some = Muslims=20 accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will = grant the=20 veracity of most of it.=20
    • Esposito (1998), pp.6,12=20
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4=E2=80=935=20
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9=20
    • F. Buhl; A. T. Welch = "Muhammad".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
    • Hava Lazarus-Yafeh "Tahrif".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.=  =20
  7. ^ = Esposito=20 (2002b), p.17=20
  8. ^ See:=20
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118=20
    • "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  9. ^ See:=20
    • Esposito (2002b), p.21=20
    • Esposito (2004), pp.2,43
  10. ^ Qur'an 6:125, Qur'an 61:7, Qur'an 39:22=20
  11. ^ Qur'an 5:3, Qur'an 3:19, Qur'an 3:83=20
  12. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 9:74, Qur'an 49:14=20
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". = Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  13. ^ Qur'an 2:4, Qur'an 2:285, Qur'an 4:136=20
  14. ^ Sahih=20 Muslim 1:1=20
  15. ^ See: =
    • Farah (2003), p.109=20
    • Momen (1987), p.176
  16. ^ = Esposito=20 (2004), pp.17,18,21=20
  17. ^ See: =
    • Momem (1987), p.176=20
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. =20
  18. ^ Qur'an 30:30=20
  19. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 22:78=20
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion
  20. ^ = "Islam",=20 Encyclopedia of Religion=20
  21. ^ See: =
    • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity = (2001):=20 Arabic-speaking Christians and = Jews also = refer to God=20 as All=C4=81h.=20
    • L. Gardet "Allah". = Encyclopaedia of=20 Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  22. ^ = David Thomas "Tathlith, Trinity". = Encyclopaedia=20 of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. :=20 Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that = the Qur'an=20 only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.=20
  23. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 112:1-4=20
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.74=E2=80=9376=20
    • Esposito (2004), p.22=20
    • Griffith (2006), p.248=20
    • D. Gimaret "Allah, Tawhid".=20 Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  24. ^ = "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica = Online.=20 Retrieved on 2007-05-17. =20
  25. ^ See: =
    • William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of = Islam, p.32=20
    • Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the=20 Qur'an, p.51=20
    • F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3=E2=80=935: "Few have failed to be = convinced that =E2=80=A6 the=20 Quran is =E2=80=A6 the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by = him after their=20 recitation."
  26. ^ See: =
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. =20
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. =20
  27. ^ = Esposito=20 (2004), p.79=20
  28. ^ See: =
    • Esposito (2004), pp.79=E2=80=9381=20
    • "Tafsir". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. =20
  29. ^ See: =
    • Teece (2003), pp.12,13=20
    • C. Turner (2006), p.42=20
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of = Islam=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. :=20 The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an = itself.=20 There are two different=20 theories about this term and its formation.
  30. ^ Qur'an 21:19-20, Qur'an 35:1=20
  31. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 35:1=20
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.26=E2=80=9328=20
    • W. Madelung "Mal=C4=81'ika".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
    • Gisela Webb "Angel". = Encyclopaedia=20 of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02.&= nbsp;=20
  32. ^ See: =
    • Esposito (1998), p.12=20
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4=E2=80=935=20
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9=20
    • "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. =20
  33. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 18:110=20
    • F. Buhl; A. T. Welch = "Muhammad".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  34. ^ See: =
    • F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194=20
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.23=E2=80=9328
  35. ^<= /A>=20 F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  36. ^ See: =
    • Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666=20
    • J. Robson "Hadith". = Encyclopaedia of=20 Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
    • D. W. Brown "Sunna". = Encyclopaedia=20 of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  37. ^ See: =
    • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)=20
    • "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia = of Islam=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. :=20 Ibn S=C4=ABn=C4=81, Ab=C5=AB =CA=BFAl=C4=AB al-=E1=B8=A4usayn b. = =CA=BFAbd All=C4=81h b. S=C4=ABn=C4=81 is known in the West as=20 "Avicenna".=20
    • L. Gardet "Qiyama". = Encyclopaedia of=20 Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  38. ^ Qur'an 9:72=20
  39. ^ See: =
    • Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim = World, p.565=20
    • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)=20
    • Asma Afsaruddin "Garden".=20 Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-08. =20
    • "Paradise". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  40. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 9:51=20
    • D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is = reinforced by=20 the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' = before=20 they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has = decreed=20 for us=E2=80=A6" ' "=20
    • Ahmet T. Karamustafa "Fate".=20 Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. :=20 The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". = Here it=20 is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation". =
  41. ^ See: =
    • Farah (2003), pp.119=E2=80=93122=20
    • Patton (1900), p.130
  42. ^ = Momen (1987),=20 pp.177,178=20
  43. ^ See: =
    • Momem (1987), p.178=20
    • "Pillars of Islam". = Encyclopaedia=20 Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  44. ^ See: =
    • Farah (1994), p.135=20
    • Momen (1987), p.178=20
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and=20 Festivals(2004)
  45. ^ See: =
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19=20
    • Hed=C3=A1yetullah (2006), pp.53=E2=80=9355=20
    • Kobeisy (2004), pp.22=E2=80=9334=20
    • Momen (1987), p.178
  46. ^ See: =
    • Qur'an 2:177=20
    • Esposito (2004), p.90=20
    • Momen (1987), p.179=20
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. =20
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia of = the Qur'an=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  47. ^ See: =
  48. ^ See: =
    • Farah (1994), pp.145=E2=80=93147=20
    • Goldschmidt (2005), p.48=20
    • "Hajj". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  49. ^ = Momen (1987),=20 p.180=20
  50. ^=20 "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  51. ^ See: =
    • Menski (2006), p.290=20
    • B. Carra de Vaux; J. Schacht, = A.M.=20 Goichon "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on = 2007-05-02.&nbs= p;=20
    • N. Calder; M. B. Hooker = "Sharia".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  52. ^ = Weiss (2002),=20 pp.xvii,162=20
  53. ^ See: =
    • Esposito (2004), p.84=20
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.502=E2=80=93507,845=20
    • Lewis (2003), p.100
  54. ^ See: =
  55. ^ = Esposito=20 (2003), p.93=20
  56. ^ = Firestone=20 (1999) pp. 17-18=20
  57. ^ = Reuven=20 Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jih=C4=81d, p. 17-18=20
  58. ^ = Britannica=20 Encyclopedia, Jihad=20
  59. ^ See: =
    • Brockopp (2003) pp. 99=E2=80=93100=20
    • Esposito (2003), p.93=20
    • "jihad". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-06-13. =20
  60. ^ See: =
    • Firestone (1999) p.17=20
    • "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
  61. ^ = Firestone=20 (1999) p.17=20
  62. ^ <= B>a=20 <= B>b=20 "Djih=C4=81d". Encyclopaedia of = Islam=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  63. ^ = Knowing the=20 Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale=20 University Press, p.108-109, 118=20
  64. ^ cf. = Sachedina=20 (1998) p. 105 and 106=20
  65. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817=20
    • Lewis (2004), pp.29,51=E2=80=9356
  66. ^ See: =
    • Holt (1977a), p.57=20
    • Hourani (2003), p.22=20
    • Lapidus (2002), p.32=20
    • Madelung (1996), p.43=20
    • Tabatabaei (1979), p.30=E2=80=9350
  67. ^ See=20
    • Holt (1977a), p.74=20
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". = Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  68. ^ Holt = (1977a),=20 pp.67=E2=80=9372=20
  69. ^ = Waines (2003)=20 p.46=20
  70. ^ = Donald=20 Puchala, =E2=80=98=E2=80=99Theory and History in International = Relations,=E2=80=99=E2=80=99 page 137.=20 Routledge, 2003.=20
  71. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91=20
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-13. =20
  72. ^ = Hawting=20 (2000), p.4=20
  73. ^ = Lapidus=20 (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71=E2=80=9383=20
  74. ^ See: =
    • Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105=20
    • Holt (1977b), pp.661=E2=80=93663=20
    • Lapidus (2002), p.56=20
    • Lewis (1993), p.84=20
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". = Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  75. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), p.103=E2=80=93143=20
    • "Abbasid Dynasty". = Encyclopaedia=20 Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  76. ^ = Lapidus=20 (2002), p.86=20
  77. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), p.160=20
    • Waines (2003) p.126,127
  78. ^ See: =
    • Esposito (2004), pp.44=E2=80=9345=20
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90=E2=80=9394=20
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  79. ^ = Tolan (2002)=20 xv, xvi, 41=20
  80. ^ See: =
    • Novak (February 1999)=20
    • Sahas (1997), pp.76=E2=80=9380
  81. ^ = Lapidus=20 (2002), pp.288=E2=80=93290,310=20
  82. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), p.292=20
    • "Islamic World". = Encyclopaedia=20 Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  83. ^ See=20
    • Holt (1977a), p.263=20
    • Lapidus (2002), p.250=20
    • "Istanbul". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  84. ^ = Esposito=20 (2004), pp.104,105=20
  85. ^ = "Islamic Art". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  86. ^ = Esposito=20 (2004), p.65=20
  87. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254=20
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". = Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  88. ^= Ikram,=20 S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia = University Press=20
  89. ^ = Lapidus=20 (2002), pp.358,378=E2=80=93380,624=20
  90. ^ See: =
    • Lapidus (2002), p.572=20
    • Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the = early=20 Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah = ibn-Wahb=20 ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
  91. ^ = Lapidus=20 (2002), pp.380,489=E2=80=93493=20
  92. ^ = Lapidus=20 (2002), pp.281=E2=80=93282,380,489=E2=80=93493,556,578,823,835=20
  93. ^ See: =
    • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179=20
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.823=E2=80=93830
  94. ^ = Rippin (2001),=20 p.288=20
  95. ^ = Timothy Garton=20 Ash. "Islam in = Europe", The = New York=20 Review of Books, NYRB, 10-05-2006. =20
  96. ^ For = example,=20 see:=20
  97. ^=20
    • Seibert (1994), pp.88=E2=80=9389=20
    • Watt (1974), p.231
  98. ^ = Ernst (2004),=20 p.11=20
  99. ^ a=20 b=20 Number of Muslim by country. nationmaster.com. = Retrieved on=20 2007-05-30.=20
  100. ^ International Religious Freedom Report = 2006=E2=80=94China (includes=20 Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau). U.S. department of State, Bureau of=20 Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2006). Retrieved on 2007-05-30.=20
  101. ^ = See:=20
    • Esposito (2004) pp.2,43=20
    • "Islamic World". = Encyclopaedia=20 Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
      Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of = Adherents.=20 Adherents.com. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.=20
    • Muslims in Europe: Country guide. BBC = News. BBC (2005-12-23). = Retrieved on 2006-09-28.=20
    • Religion In Britain. National Statistics. = Office for=20 National Statistics (2003-02-13). = Retrieved on 2006-08-27.=20
  102. ^ = See:=20
    • J. Pedersen; R. Hillenbrand, = J.=20 Burton-Page, et al. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. = Retrieved on 2007-05-02. = =20
    • "Mosque". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  103. ^ = "al-Mar'a".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam=20
  104. ^=20
    • Waines (2003) pp. 93=E2=80=9396=20
    • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339=20
    • Esposito (1998) p. 79
  105. ^ = *"Talak".=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam=20
  106. ^=20
    • Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235=E2=80=93241=20
    • Harald Motzki "Marriage and = Divorce".=20 Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Retrieved on 2007-05-15. =20
    • Lori Peek "Marriage = Practices".=20 Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Retrieved on 2007-05-15. =20
  107. ^ = See:=20
    • Adil (2002), p.288=20
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.67=20
    • B. van Dalen; R. S. = Humphreys, Manuela=20 Mar=C3=ADn, et al. "Tarikh=CC=B2". Encyclopaedia of Islam = Online. Retrieved on=20 2007-05-02.=  =20
  108. ^ = Ghamidi=20 (2001): Customs and=20 Behavioral Laws=20
  109. ^ = Friedmann=20 (2003), pp. 14=E2=80=9316=20
  110. ^ = Friedmann=20 (2003), pp. 18=E2=80=9319=20
  111. ^ = Friedmann=20 (2003), p. 18=20
  112. ^ = Friedmann=20 (2003), p. 35=20
  113. ^ = See:=20
    • Friedmann (2003), p. 35;=20
    • Lewis (1984), p. 39
  114. ^ = See:=20
    • Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;=20
    • Friedmann (2003), p. 37;
  115. ^ = Lewis (2001),=20 p.273=20
  116. ^ = Friedmann=20 (2003), p. 55=20
  117. ^ = "Aman",=20 Encyclopaedia of Islam=20
  118. ^ A = woman who=20 apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned = according to others.=20
  119. ^ = "Murtadd",=20 Encyclopedia of Islam=20
  120. ^ = See:=20
  121. ^ = See:=20
    • Esposito (2003), pp.275,306=20
    • "Shariah". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
    • "Sunnite". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  122. ^ See =
    • Lapidus (2002), p.46=20
    • "Imam". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
    • "Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia = Britannica=20 Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. =20
  123. ^ Imamat, by Naser = Makarem=20 Shirazi=20
  124. ^ = See:=20
    • Ahmed (1999), pp.44=E2=80=9345=20
    • Nasr (1994), p.466
  125. ^ = See:=20
  126. ^ = Trimingham=20 (1998), p.1=20
  127. ^ = See:=20
    • Esposito (2003), p.302=20
    • Malik (2006), p.3=20
    • B. S. Turner (1998), p.145=20
    • Afghanistan: A=20 Country Study. Country Studies 150. U. S. Library of = Congress=20 (Federal Research Division). Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
  128. ^ = See:=20
  129. ^ = Encyclopedia=20 of Islam, "Sikhs"

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  • Sahas,=20 Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the=20 Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers. I= SBN=20 978-9004034952. =20
  • Sachedina, = Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The = Comprehensive=20 Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford = University Press=20 US. ISBN= =20 0195119150. =20
  • Seibert, Robert F. (1994). = "Review: Islam=20 and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of = Religious=20 Research 36 (1). = =20
  • Sells, = Michael=20 Anthony; Emran Qureshi (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing = the=20 Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN= =20 0231126670. =20
  • Smith,=20 Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and = Resurrection.=20 Oxford University Press. I= SBN=20 978-0195156492. =20
  • Stillman, = Norman=20 (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book.=20 Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN= =20 1-82760-198-1. =20
  • Tabatabae, = Sayyid=20 Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). = Shi'ite=20 Islam. Suny press. ISBN= =20 0-87395-272-3. =20
  • Tabatabae, = Sayyid=20 Mohammad Hosayn; R. Campbell (translator) (2002). Islamic = teachings: An=20 Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. = Green=20 Gold. ISBN= =20 0-922817-00-6. =20
  • Teece,=20 Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. I= SBN=20 978-0749647964. =20
  • Tolan,=20 John V. (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European = Imagination.=20 Columbia University Press. =20
  • Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The = Sufi Orders=20 in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN= =20 0195120582. =20
  • Tritton, = Arthur=20 S. [1930] (1970). The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A = Critical=20 Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN= =20 0-7146-1996-5. =20
  • Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the = Basics.=20 Routledge (UK). ISBN= =20 041534106X. =20
  • Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and = Islam.=20 Routledge (UK). ISBN= =20 0415174589. =20
  • Waines, David (2003). An Introduction = to=20 Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN= =20 0521539064. =20
  • Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for = Historical=20 Muhammad. Prometheus. I= SBN=20 978-1573927871. =20
  • Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: = Apostates=20 Speak Out. Prometheus. ISBN= =20 1-59102-068-9. =20
  • Watt, W. = Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. = University Press Edinburgh. ISBN= =20 0-85-224254-X. =20
  • Watt, W. = Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, New, = Oxford=20 University Press. ISBN= =20 0-19-881078-4. =20
  • Weiss,=20 Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: = Brill=20 Academic publishers. ISBN= =20 9004120661. =20
  • Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word = of=20 Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN= =20 0-292-79076-7. =20
  • Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle = East.=20 Greenhaven Pr. ISBN= =20 0737701331.&= nbsp;=20
Encyclopedias
  • Berkshire Encyclopedia of = World=20 History. (2005). Ed. William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David=20 Christian. Berkshire Publishing Group. I= SBN=20 978-0974309101. =20
  • Catholic=20 Encyclopedia. (1910). Ed. Gabriel Oussani. =20
  • The Columbia = Encyclopedia (6th).=20 (2000). Ed. Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. = Norton. Gale=20 Group. I= SBN=20 978-1593392369. =20
  • Encyclopaedia=20 Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. = =20
  • Encyclopedia of = Christianity=20 (1st). (2001). Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley. = Eerdmans=20 Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN= =20 0-8028-2414-5. =20
  • Encyclopedia of = Christianity=20 (1st). (2005). Ed. John Bowden. Oxford University Press. ISBN= =20 0-19-522393-4. =20
  • Encyclopedia of the = Future.=20 (1995). Ed. George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor. MacMillan = Reference=20 Books. I= SBN=20 978-0028972053. =20
  • Encyc= lopaedia=20 of Islam Online. Ed. P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. = Bosworth, E. van=20 Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN = 1573-3912. =20
  • Encyclopedia of Islam and = the Muslim=20 World. (2003). Ed. Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia=20 Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll. = MacMillan=20 Reference Books. I= SBN=20 978-0028656038. =20
  • Encyc= lopaedia=20 of the Qur'an Online. Ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Brill = Academic=20 Publishers. =20
  • Encyclopedia of Religion = (2nd).=20 (2005). Ed. Lindsay Jones. MacMillan Reference Books. I= SBN=20 978-0028657332. =20
  • Encyclopedia of Religious = Rites,=20 Rituals, and Festivals (1st). (2004). Ed. Salamone Frank. = Routledge. I= SBN=20 978-0415941808. =20
  • The Encyclopedia of World = History=20 Online (6th). (2000). Ed. Peter N. Stearns. Bartleby. =20
  • Medieval Islamic = Civilization: An=20 Encyclopedia. (2005). Ed. Josef W. Meri. = Routledge.=20 ISBN= =20 041-5966906. =20
  • Merriam-Webster's = Encyclopedia of=20 World Religions. (1999). Ed. Wendy Doniger. = Merriam-Webster= . ISBN= =20 087-7790442. =20
  • New Encyclopedia of Islam: A = Revised=20 Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. (2003). Ed. Glasse = Cyril.=20 AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906. =20
  • Routledge Encyclopedia of=20 Philosophy (1st). (1998). Ed. Edward Craig. Routledge. I= SBN=20 978-0415073103. =20

Further reading

  • Arberry, A. J. = (1996).=20 The Koran Interpreted: A Translation, 1st, Touchstone. I= SBN=20 978-0684825076. =20
  • Hawting, = Gerald R.=20 (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD = 661=E2=80=93750.=20 Routledge. ISBN= =20 0415240727. =20
  • Khan, = Muhammad=20 Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble = Quran,=20 1st, Dar-us-Salam Publications. I= SBN=20 978-9960740799. =20
  • Kramer (ed.), = Martin=20 (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard=20 Lewis. Syracuse University. I= SBN=20 978-9652240408. =20
  • Kuban,=20 Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic = Publishers.=20 ISBN= =20 9004038132. =20
  • Lewis,=20 Bernard (1993). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in = the=20 Middle East. Open Court. I= SBN=20 978-0812692174. =20
  • Lewis,=20 Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University = Press. I= SBN=20 978-0195090611. =20
  • Lewis,=20 Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and = Jews in=20 the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. I= SBN=20 978-0195102833.&nb= sp;=20
  • Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed = Nectar:=20 Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. I= SBN=20 978-1591440710. =20
  • Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). = History of=20 Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. I= SBN=20 978-1591440345. =20
  • Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its = History,=20 Teaching, and Practices, New Edition, Indiana University Press. I= SBN=20 978-0253216274.&= nbsp;=20
  • Rahman, Fazlur = (1979).=20 Islam, 2nd, University of Chicago Press. ISBN= =20 0-226-70281-2. =20
  • Walker, = Benjamin=20 (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. = Peter Owen=20 Publishers. I= SBN=20 978-0720610383. =20

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